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American Civil Liberties Union/ACLU

American Civil Liberties Union/ACLU 美国民权联盟;美国公民自由联盟 1920年由罗杰·鲍德温〔Roger Baldwin〕等人在纽约市创立,联合发起创立这一组织的其他知名人士包括:作家海伦·凯勒〔Helen A. Keller〕,时为律师,后来成为美国最高法院大法官的弗兰克福特〔Felix Frankfurter〕,以及社会主义者牧师托马斯〔Norman Thomas〕。这一非官方、非营利性质组织以维护宪法中权利法案的自由权为宗旨,致力于使宪法保障的言论、集会、结社、宗教等公民个人自由权利,以及平等权,法律的正当程序和公民的隐私权等民权真正彻底实现。现有成员30多万人,总部设在纽约市,在哥伦比亚特区华盛顿设有一个立法办事处〔legislative office〕。联盟自1920年创立以来恪守政治上中立的准则,它只致力于保卫所有的人,包括那些弱势团体、不受欢迎甚至是遭人厌恶的人的自由权利而不论其政治观点如何。这样,联盟积极涉入保障过三K党、共产党人、社会主义者、罗马天主教、同性恋者、少数民族裔等的合法自由权利。联盟的哲学是:民权总是十分脆弱、易受环境情形的变化而大受影响,政府和社会中的多数派很轻易地削弱它们,甚至剥夺。自由权不会自我实现,必须依靠抗争来赢取,并且通过不停的抗争来赢取(类似于霍姆斯大法官在艾布拉姆斯〔Abrams〕案的司法异议)。联盟尽管争取、维护、保障的是相当抽像和一般性的自由权,但他们认为公民的自由权只有当每个人都享有时,这些权利才会存在,意即,自由权利如不被特定的社会群体,包括弱势群体、社会憎恶或政府使其沉默的个人所享有,所谓所有人享有的自由权利就是一句空话。联盟充分运用合法的司法资源,帮助或亲自涉入最高法院以及不同级别的地方性司法机构中挑战或检验立法或案件的合宪性。20世纪30年代至90年代中期,联盟在最高法院赢得了一些重大的案件,其中最着名的是1954年的「布朗」案〔Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483,74 S. Ct. 686,98 L. Ed. 873 (1954)〕,这些判例对美国的法律乃至美国人的生活及其历史产生深远的影响,成为美国法律制度中一支坚定不移的力量。联盟除诉诸于司法诉讼程序保障公司自由权,还关注立法问题,对于全国性或地方性的立法事务频繁发表公开评论意见,同时对于妇女、儿童权利、死刑、犯人权利、国家安全等问题也予以关注。最重要的是联盟不只是关注已存在的自由权,而且还致力于将这些已存在的自由权扩展至未曾普遍享有的领域。美国民权联盟的实践恰当地反映了自治性质的结社权对于维护脆弱而珍贵的公民自由权利,特别是多元社会下的弱势群体的基本自由权利的至关重要性。

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treason felony

treason felony. English law. An act that shows an intention of committing treason, unaccompanied by any further act to carry out that intention. • This offense usu. results in life imprisonment rather than the death penalty. Cf. TREASONABLE MISDEMEANOR.

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future covenant

A covenant that can be breached only upon interference with the possession of the grantee or the grantee’s successors. • The covenants in this class are the covenant for further assurances, the covenant for quiet enjoyment, and the covenant of warranty. The distinction between future and present covenants becomes im-portant in determining when the statute

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prayer for relief

prayer for relief. A request addressed to the court and appearing at the end of a pleading; esp., a request for specific relief or damages. — Often shortened to prayer. — Also termed demand for relief. See AD DAMNUM CLAUSE. [Cases: Federal Civil Procedure 680; Pleading 72. C.J.S. Pleading §§ 110–115.] “The prayer for relief.

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allonge

allonge (a-lawnzh). A slip of paper sometimes attached to a negotiable instrument for the purpose of receiving further indorsements when the original paper is filled with indorsements. • Former UCC § 3-202 required that indorsements be made on the instrument unless there was no space — and only then could an allonge be used. Current

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stalking

stalking. 1. The act or an instance of following another by stealth. 2. The offense of following or loitering near another, often surreptitiously, with the purpose of annoying or harassing that person or committing a further crime such as assault or battery. • Some statutory definitions include an element that the person being stalked must

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exchange

exchange, n. Commercial law. 1. The act of transferring interests, each in consideration for the other. [Cases: Exchange of Property 1. C.J.S. Exchange of Property §§ 2–3.] bargained-for exchange. See BARGAINED-FOR EXCHANGE. like-kind exchange. See LIKE-KIND EXCHANGE. tax-free exchange. See TAX-FREE EXCHANGE. 1031 exchange. See 1031 EXCHANGE. 2. Money or negotiable instruments presented as payment;

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derivative

derivative, adj. Copyright. Of, relating to, or constituting a work that is taken from, translated from, adapted from, or in some way further developed from a previous work. • Copyright protection includes the exclusive right in derivative works, such as a screenplay adapted from a book, or a variant musical arrangement. See derivative work under

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litigant

litigant. A party to a lawsuit. institutional litigant. See INSTITUTIONAL LITIGANT. vexatious litigant. A litigant who repeatedly files frivolous lawsuits. • Many jurisdictions have statutes or local rules requiring a vexatious litigant to obtain the court’s permission to file any further lawsuits or pleadings.

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