neutralization. 1. The act of making something ineffective. 2. Int’l law. The process by which a country’s integrity has been permanently guaranteed by international treaty, conditionally on its maintaining a perpetual neutrality except in its own defense. • Switzerland is the only remaining example, having been neutralized by the Treaty of Vienna in 1815 — […]
buyer. One who makes a purchase. See PURCHASER. buyer in ordinary course of business. A person who — in good faith and without knowledge that the sale violates a third party’s ownership rights or security interest in the goods — buys from a person regularly engaged in the business of selling goods of that kind.
incorporation doctrine 〈美〉合并原则 通过美国宪法第十四条修正案，将最初仅对联邦政府权力有约束力的《权利法案》〔Bill of Rights〕的多数规定，同样扩展适用于州政府的宪法原则。直到19世纪初期，美国法院一直将《权利法案》适用于联邦政府。但此种观点在19世纪中期受到质疑。而在合并进程中起关键作用的则是1868年获批准的美国宪法第十四条修正案，该修正案规定非经正当法律程序〔due process of law〕任何州不得剥夺公民的生命、自由或财产。自1897年起，美国最高法院通过各类判决意见，已将除下列规定外《权利法案》所有权利并入州：１第二条修正案的携带武器的权利〔right to bear arms〕；２第三条修正案的禁止驻扎士兵〔prohibition of quartering soldiers〕；３第五条修正案的由大陪审团起诉的权利〔right to grand-jury indictment〕；４第七条修正案的民事案件受陪审团审判的权利〔right to a jury trial〕;５第八条修正案的禁止科处过高保释金和罚金〔prohibition of excessive bail and fines〕。
incorporation doctrine Read More »
bale. A package of goods wrapped in cloth and marked so as to be identifiable on a bill of lading.
honor, n. 1. In the United States, a courtesy title given to judges and certain other public officials. 2. (usu. pl.) In England, those dignities or privileges, degrees of nobility, knighthood, and other titles that flow from the Crown. 3. Hist. In England, a seigniory of several manors held under one baron or lord paramount.
ambulatory (am-by[schwa]-l[schwa]-tor-ee), adj. 1. Able to walk (the accident victim is still ambula-tory). 2. Capable of being altered or revised; not yet legally fixed (a will is ambulatory because it is revocable until the testator’s death).
merchant’s defense. The principle that a store owner will not be held liable for reasonably detaining a suspected shoplifter, to facilitate an investigation by a law-enforcement officer, if probable cause exists to suspect the detained person of wrongfully removing merchandise from the store. [Cases: False Imprisonment 11.]
merchant’s defense Read More »
chance bargain. Contracts. A transaction in which the parties mutually agree to accept the risk that facts and circumstances assumed by the parties at the time of contracting may not actually be what the parties believe they are. • If no fraud or misrepresentation is involved, a court will uphold a chance bargain. For instance,
notice to quit 迁出通知；退租通知 土地、房屋等不动产的出租人〔landlord〕向承租人〔tenant〕发出的通知，要求后者于指定时间搬出所租用的不动产。它通常是终止租赁关系的法定先决条件。如果承租人以任意租赁〔tenancy by will〕或容许租赁〔tenancy by sufferance〕的方式占有不动产，该通知将要求其立即搬出。如果承租人系根据与出租人的租赁合同占有不动产，该通知将要求其在一段期限届满之前搬出。通知期限或由双方特别约定，或依当地习惯确定，或由法律规定。例如，根据英国法律，如果没有特别约定或风俗习惯，定期循环租赁〔periodic tenancy〕的出租人必须给予承租人相当于一个循环期的退租通知，但在年循环租赁〔yearly tenancy〕的情况下，通知期为6个月，而在住房租赁的情况下则应给予至少四个星期的退租通知。有时该词也指承租人给予出租人的、表示其打算在某一日期交还所租不动产的书面通知。
after-acquired-evidence doctrine. Employment law. The rule that if an employer discharges an employee for an unlawful reason and later discovers misconduct sufficient to justify a lawful discharge, the employee cannot win reinstatement. • The doctrine either shields the employer from liability or limits the available relief when, after an employee has been terminated, the employer
after acquired evidence doctrine Read More »