Search Results for: equal protection

discrimination

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discrimination n. 区别对待；歧视 就其作为中性词而言，discrimination(区别对待)是大多数法的目的。法律旨在将善行〔good or useful conduct〕与恶行〔harmful conduct〕分别开来。因而，通常必须将允许或禁止从事某一行为的人进行区分，例如，某些人饮酒有害，法律规定青少年不得饮酒。就本质而言，区别对待并非违宪。不过discrimination在目前的用法中，非指中性，而常被用作贬义。它指授予某些人特权或因种族、年龄、性别、民族、信仰或残疾剥夺某些人权利的法律或惯例的后果，或者指没有正当理由，不平等地对待各方。美国联邦法律、法院判例和州法禁止因种族、年龄、性别、民族等在僱佣、选举、公共教育、信贷〔extension of credit〕、住房〔housing〕等方面实行歧视待遇。 (→bias; disparate treatment; equal protection clause; equal protection of the laws; invidious discrimination; price discrimination; protected class; reverse discrimination)

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artificial person

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An entity, such as a corporation, created by law and given certain legal rights and duties of a human being; a being, real or imaginary, who for the purpose of legal reasoning is treated more or less as a human being. • An entity is a person for purposes of the Due Process and Equal

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rational basis test

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rational-basis test. Constitutional law. The criterion for judicial analysis of a statute that does not implicate a fundamental right or a suspect or quasi-suspect classification under the Due Process or Equal Protection Clause, whereby the court will uphold a law if it bears a reasonable relationship to the attainment of a legitimate governmental objective. •

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fourteenth amendment

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Fourteenth Amendment. The constitutional amendment, ratified in 1868, whose primary provisions effectively apply the Bill of Rights to the states by prohibiting states from denying due process and equal protection and from abridging the privileges and immunities of U.S. citizenship. • The amendment also gave Congress the power to enforce these provisions, leading to legislation

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landmark decision

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landmark decision. A judicial decision that significantly changes existing law. • Examples are Brown v. Board of Educ., 347 U.S. 483, 74 S.Ct. 686 (1954) (holding that segregation in public schools violates the Equal Protection Clause), and Palsgraf v. Long Island R.R., 162 N.E. 99 (N.Y. 1928) (establishing that a defendant’s duty in a negligence

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obnoxious

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obnoxious, adj. 1. Offensive; objectionable (obnoxious behavior). 2. Contrary; opposed (a practice obnoxious to the principle of equal protection under the law). 3. Archaic. Exposed to harm; liable to something undesirable (actions obnoxious to criticism).

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united states commission on civil rights

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United States Commission on Civil Rights. The agency that compiles information about discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, age, disability, or national origin, and about the denial of equal protection of the laws in voting, education, employment, and housing. • The agency makes findings and recommendations to Congress but has no enforcement power. It

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Fourteenth Amendment

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Fourteenth Amendment 美国宪法第十四条修正案 1868年批准。该修正案旨在把美国宪法第十三条修正案扩展为联邦民权〔civil rights〕权威〔authority〕的基础，同时，目的还在于强制南方州遵从为黑人新确立的政治权利。修正案共分五款，其中第一款乃是其核心。修正案创立或首次确认了区别于各州公民身份的美国公民身份；禁止各州制定或实施剥夺美国公民特权及豁免权的法律；各州未经正当法律程序不得剥夺任何人的生命、自由或财产；不得剥夺任何人应获得平等的法律保护。修正案还包含关于国会中代表名额分配的规定。第十四条修正案提出了在保护民权方面的联邦地位。但对该修正案的早期解释仍保留了在这一政策领域中州的主导作用。只是到近期，主要通过对正当法律程序和平等保护条款的扩大解释才使其产生了重大变化。第十四条修正案现在已成为美国民权政策的奠基石和《权利法案》〔Bill of Rights〕保障一直扩展到各州的主要方式，它在保障美国人基本权利方面的重要性与此事实相关：与美国奠基人的看法相反，对人民自由的主要威胁一直是来自州和地方政府而不是联邦政府。 (→due process of law; equal protection clause)

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strict scrutiny test

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strict scrutiny test 〈美〉严格审查(标准) 指法院在审查可疑分类〔suspect classifications〕如种族等是否违反平等法律保护条款〔Equal Protection Clause〕，以及在正当法律程序分析中对政府行为是否侵犯诸如投票权等公民基本权利时，用以评价政府行为合宪性的标准。「strict scrutiny」一词由美国最高法院大法官威廉·O.道格拉斯〔William O.Douglas〕于1942年在一起案件中首次使用。尽管先前对该标准多有歧见，但近年来美国最高法院对其表达渐趋一致。该标准要求被诉政府行为必须为实现「紧迫性」〔compelling〕政府利益所必需〔necessary〕，因而它是美国法院已阐明的三层次审查标准中最严厉的一项审查标准。一般性(最低)审查〔ordinary (minimum) scrutiny〕适用于政府对人们及其活动的大多数分类基础，例如，财产(或无财产)等经济和社会因素。该标准仅要求政府能证明此项分类计划与「合法」〔legitimate〕政府利益之间有「合理」〔reasonable〕关联。中度审查〔intermediate level scrutiny〕适用于以性别和无合法身份〔illegitimacy〕为基础的分类，它要求政府行为必须与「重要」〔important〕政府利益之间有实质性〔substantial〕关联。与法院假定立法或被诉政府行为合宪、原告负有证明其违宪责任的一般性审查相比，严格审查假定立法或被诉政府行为是违宪的，政府负有证明其具有紧迫性利益的责任。法院在确定被诉立法或政府行为的有效性时，必须集中在政府目的之上，而不仅仅是政府行为后果上。

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