Federal Election Commission. A six-member independent federal commission that certifies payments to qualifying presidential campaigns in primary and general elections and to national-nominating conventions, audits campaign expenditures, and enforces laws requiring public disclosure of financial activities of presidential campaigns and political parties. • It was established by the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971. 2 […]
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International Rules of the Road. Maritime law. A set of statutes designed to promote navigational safety. • The International Rules were formalized at the convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972. The rules set requirements for navigation lights, day shapes, steering and sailing rules, sound signals in good and restricted visibility
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conference. 1. CONVENTION(3). 2. A meeting between the two houses of a bicameral legislature. See conference committee under COMMITTEE. “It is proper for either house to request a conference with the other on any matter of difference or dispute between them. When a conference is requested, the subject of the conference should always be stated.
military objective. Int’l law. An object that by its nature, location, or use contributes to military action, and is thus susceptible to attack. • Under Geneva Convention Protocol 1 (1977), only military — rather than civilian — objects are proper targets.
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hijacking n. (1)拦路抢劫 一般指抢劫正在运输中的货车上的货物，有时仅指抢劫货物，有时也包括抢劫车辆和货物。 (2)劫持航空器 在航空器上，使用武力或任何威胁手段劫持或控制该航空器的罪行。通常是为了一定的政治目的而实施的。1970年在海牙国际社会专门针对非法劫持航空器的犯罪而制定了《海牙公约》〔Hague Convention〕，英国在1971年、1973年分别制定了相应的《制止劫持航空器法》〔Hijacking Act〕、《保护航空器法》〔Protection of Aircraft Act〕，规定对该罪提起诉讼需要征得总检察长的同意，对该罪可判处无期徒刑。
Brussels Act. Copyright. A 1948 revision of the Berne Convention mandating the life-plus-50-years copyright term as a minimum standard, extending the moral rights of attribution and integrity in most member countries to the full copyright term, extending the broadcast right to television, strengthening protection of several forms of copyright protection, and extending some protection to
genocide (jen-[schwa]-sId).Int’l law. An international crime involving acts causing serious physical and mental harm with the intent to destroy, partially or entirely, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. • The widely ratified Genocide Convention of 1948 defines the crime. The International Criminal Court has jurisdiction to try those accused of genocide. Many nations also
A committee charged with screening the original main motions offered for a convention’s consideration. — Also termed reference committee; screening committee.
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Court of the Four Burghs 〈英〉四自治市法庭 四自治市最初指伯威克〔Berwick〕、罗克斯堡〔Roxburgh〕、爱丁堡〔Edinburgh〕和斯德林〔Stirling〕,前二者后来被兰那克〔Lanark〕和林利思戈〔Linlithgow〕取代。直到14世纪，这个由苏格兰财务官〔Chamberlain of Scotland〕和每市的四位市民组成的法庭每年在汉廷顿〔Haddington〕开庭，审理来自首席财务官巡回法庭〔Chamberlain ayre〕的上诉案件。虽然该法庭逐渐发展为向所有自治市提供咨询的机构，但其司法权仍被保留。1500年后其司法职能迅速消失，仅作为咨询机构继续存在，1552年成为苏格兰御准自治市会议〔Convention of Royal Burghs〕，主要是一个立法和行政机构，并仅对苏格兰自治市共同关心的事务进行联合审议。
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Hague Rules 《海牙规则》 《统一有关提单的若干法律规则的国际公约》〔International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law Relating to Bills of Lading〕的简称。在1924年于布鲁塞尔被正式签定前，该公约的草案曾由国际法协会在1921年的海牙会议上批准，故得其名。该公约的目的是限制承运人凭借其缔约优势地位，滥用契约自由权利而在提单上任意加注承运人免责条款的行为，统一确立海上货物承运人最低限度的义务和责任，避免海上承运人和托运人之间的争端激化，以平衡双方的利益。《海牙规则》于1931年6月2日生效，其主要内容包括：１承运人承担两项基本的法定义务，即承运人必须在开航前和开航当时，谨慎处理，使船舶适航；承运人必须妥善地和谨慎地管理货物。这两项基本义务不得由提单中所列明的合同条款免除或减轻。２承运人的17项免责事项，其中特别是承运人对船长、船员、引航员或承运人的僱佣人员在驾驶船舶或管理船舶中的过失以及火灾中的过失可以免责。３承运人的货物运输责任期间为从货物装上船起至卸下船为止的期间。４承运人的损害赔偿责任限额为每件或每单位货物不超过100英镑。５托运人应保证其提供之货物情况的说明正确。６收货人索赔的诉讼时效为一年，从货物交付之日或应交付之日起算。７本公约的各项规定适用于在任何缔约国内签发的一切提单。英国批准《海牙规则》并将其转化为国内成文法后，承运人的权利和义务发生了重大变化。在此以前，按照英格兰普通法，承运人对托运人或收货人承担严格责任，相反在承运人的缔约自由方面倒没有什么限制，结果导致了承运人在提单上任意扩大免责范围，减轻自己的义务，托运人或收货人仍是受害者，《海牙规则》改变了这一状况。《海牙规则》对统一国际海上货物运输法律具有积极的作用，但也存在一些不足之处。1968年在布鲁塞尔通过了对《海牙规则》进行修订的议定书，即《修改统一有关提单的若干法律规则的国际公约的议定书》〔Protocol to Amend the International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law Relating to Bills of Lading〕,该议定书对《海牙规则》作了一些非根本性的修订和补充。由于在讨论制定该议定书的会议期间，会议代表曾对中世纪着名的《维斯比海法》的发源地维斯比城进行了访问，因此就以《维斯比规则》〔Visby Rules〕来命名该议定书。经《维斯比规则》修订和补充后的《海牙规则》，被称为《海牙-维斯比规则》。此外，还把批准《海牙规则》并使之成为国内法的立法，称作「《海牙规则》立法」〔Hague Rules Legislation〕。一般认为，尽管《海牙规则》对承运人的最低限度的义务和责任作了规定，但该公约所规定的免责条款和责任限制仍有利于承运人和航运大国。这些保护承运人利益的免责条款和责任限制的立法基础是与巨大的海上风险不相称的航海技术。随着现代航海技术的提高，《海牙规则》的立法基础被动摇，收货人和托运人要求风险均衡承担的呼声日隆，其结果是《1978年联合国海上货物运输公约》〔United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea, 1978〕，即《汉堡规则》，该公约于1992年11月生效。