apprenticeship
apprenticeship n. 学徒身份;学徒资格;学徒期(→apprentice; articles of apprenticeship)
Black Code (1)〈美〉《黑人法典》 17-19世纪美国南部各州关于黑奴法律地位的制定法的总称。该法主要规定了制定黑奴的行为规则及对黑奴进行制裁等方面的司法管辖权,其在各州的规定不尽相同,但有一些实质上共同的原则。其基本原则为:黑奴是动产〔chattels〕而不是人,法律必须确保黑奴主人对黑奴的财产所有权免受侵害,任何州或教堂都不能保护黑奴。任何一点黑人的血统都决定了一个人的种族及其身份是否自由,子女的身份由其母亲的身份决定。黑奴不能签订契约、拥有财产、殴打白人——即使是在被攻击的情形下还击,不能作对白人不利的旁证,也不能参加集会,未经准许不得离开主人的住宅,不得拥有武器,也不得接受教育、学习读写。该法典由州法庭负责实施,违反该法的行为将受到严厉的处罚——尽管很少处以死刑,并由白人巡警监视黑奴。如果出现黑人可能发生暴乱的情形,该法将被更严厉地实施。内战以后,南部各州通过了新的《黑人法典》,以控制和镇压解放黑奴,维护白人的优先权,并确保获得持续的有色人种廉价劳力供应。新的《黑人法典》保留了解放黑奴的弱势地位,在《流浪法》〔vagrancy laws〕中,通过规定严厉的制裁强迫所有的黑人都去工作,在《学徒法》〔apprentice laws〕中,规定年青的黑人学徒工必须受雇于原来的主人。一些州禁止黑人拥有财产,或者把他们所能从事的行业只限制在仆佣业。禁止跨种族的杂交婚姻,而且黑人的许多行动都受到限制,黑人的选举权则完全被剥夺。这些法令使很多北方领导人坚信南方并没有真正接受黑奴解放的事实,因此而导致了1867-1877年军事重建〔Military Reconstruction〕时期的到来,在这一时期,为了保护前奴隶的利益,自由人联合会〔Freedmen’s Bureau〕担负着沉重的职责。 (2)〈法〉《黑人法典》 1685年生效的关于黑奴待遇问题的法国法。
economic-realities test. A method by which a court determines the true nature of a business transaction or situation by examining the totality of the commercial circumstances. • Courts often use this test to determine whether a person is an employee or an independent contractor. Factors include whether the alleged employer controls the details of the
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Year Books. Hist. Books of cases anonymously and fairly regularly reported covering primarily the period from the reign of Edward I to the time of Henry VIII. • The title “Year Books” derives from their being grouped under the regnal years of the sovereigns in whose reigns the reported cases were cited. The reports were
apprenticius ad legem (a-pren-tish-ee-[schwa]s ad lee-j[schwa]m). [Law Latin] APPRENTICE OF THE LAW.
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A contract between an employer and employee in which the terms and conditions of em-ployment are stated. [Cases: Master and Servant 2. C.J.S. Apprentices § 2; Employer–Employee Relationship §§ 21, 25–26.]
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seaman n. (1)〈英〉公海上的船舶上的人员 根据1894年的海运法,不包括船主、飞行员和正式签约注册的学徒。 (2)〈美〉船员;海员;水手 对航海船舶的航行和驾驶起协助作用的人,其人身损害赔偿受《琼斯法》〔Jones Act〕调整。 (3)〈美〉服役海军的军人 军衔在海军三等兵〔seaman apprentice〕和海军军士〔petty office〕之间。
clerkship. 1. A type of internship in which a law student or recent law-school graduate assists a lawyer or judge with legal writing, research, and other tasks. • In many common-law jurisdictions, recent law-school graduates are required to complete clerkships as a condition of admission to the bar. [Cases: Courts 55. C.J.S. Courts §§ 107–109.]
master and servant. The relation between two persons, one of whom (the master) has authority over the other (the servant), with the power to direct the time, manner, and place of the services. • This relationship is similar to that of principal and agent, but that terminology applies to employments in which the employee has
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A union with restrictive membership requirements, such as high dues and long apprenticeship periods. Cf. closed shop under SHOP.